Career intervention effectiveness and motivation: blended and distance modalities comparison

Online learning and online career interventions

Online learning, defined as education using the internet in an online environment for teaching and learning (Singh & Thurman, 2019), has become an unavoidable discussion in Higher Education (HE) over the past two decades (Garrison & Kanuka, 2004). In 2023, 30% of EU internet users reported doing an online course or using online learning material in the previous three months (Eurostat, 2024).

With the rise in popularity of online education, concerns about its quality have increased among academics and practitioners (Wang, 2024). One of the biggest challenges of online education concerns students' persistence, with dropout rates in online learning environments ranging between 30 and 50% (Ribeirinha et. al., 2024; Shi & Zhou, 2023), some studies even pointing to non-completion rates as high as 75 to 90% (Hsu et al., 2019). These high percentages have raised attention to issues related to the effectiveness of online interventions, including the role of motivational factors in the success of these actions regarding their completion and achievement. For this reason, it is important to know more about the influence of motivation on the process and results of online engagement in educational activities, and its relationship with different modalities of intervention (Halverson et al., 2014; Hernández-Arvizu et al., 2023; Vaughan, 2014; Zavyalova, 2020).

Online education allows for full distance learning enabling students to engage without restrictions of time, place, or situation while still being involved in a learning community, therefore being simultaneously connected and apart (Garrison & Kanuka, 2004). Blended learning, understood as “the thoughtful integration of classroom face-to-face learning experiences with online learning experiences” (Garrison & Kanuka, 2004, p. 96), is one of the primary and rapidly growing ways of introducing online learning in HE, to the point of being considered by some as the new normal (Zavyalova, 2020). Blended learning differs from other forms of online education, as it occupies the middle position in a continuum of online integration ranging from enhanced learning to fully online learning. Although there is no quantifiable distinction between these types of education, the test of real blended education lies in the effective integration of both modalities, where they are not merely juxtaposed, but rather there is a reorganisation of the teaching and learning dynamics (Garrison & Kanuka, 2004).

Blended learning aims to associate the benefits of online learning and face-to-face education and has been used to respond to various problems posed by face-to-face education, such as international and multi-institutional collaboration, bridging geographical distances, or the specific needs of different groups of students (Gerbic, 2011; Hong Minh et al., 2023). Most relevantly for the present study, it has also been reported to contribute to students’ motivation (Chakawodza et al., 2024; Nass et al., 2023), avoiding one of the potential drawbacks of online education.

Focusing specifically on career interventions for HE students, programs delivered remotely in online environments have gained significant attention (e.g., Carvalho et al., 2023; Pordelan et al., 2018) due to the growing need for more flexible and accessible opportunities (Pordelan et al., 2018; Sampson et al., 2020). The recent pandemic has also shed light on the specific needs of HE students in that context (Hernández-Arvizu et al., 2023; Pereira et al., 2022). Even though additional evidence illustrating how distance career interventions may enhance HE students’ career-related skills is needed (Hirschi et al., 2018; Kettunen & Sampson, 2019; Soares et al., 2022), a few studies have evidenced their positive effect, for instance, on career adaptability (Carvalho et al., 2023; van der Horst et al., 2021), career planning and exploration (Pordelan et al., 2018; Pordelan & Hosseinian, 2021), and career resources.

Blended career intervention emerges as a promising intervention modality. However, the blended learning approach in the context of career interventions and how it impacts students’ outcomes has been scarcely studied. While substantial research has evidenced that outcomes in online and blended environments can overcome those obtained in face-to-face contexts (Chakawodza et al., 2024; Drouin et al., 2015; Hong Minh et al., 2023; Min & Yu, 2023), the efficacy of distance career interventions (Kettunen & Sampson, 2019) and, particularly, specificities inherent to distance and blended interventions (Lau et al., 2021), need further investigation. Such information is fundamental for academics, practitioners and policymakers to assess which programs need to be fostered to promote career development among HE students.

As HE institutions increasingly recognise their role in promoting the career development of HE students, the ways of integrating career education into education and training programs also emerge as a concern. Career education tends to be integrated into curricula in one of four ways: i) as a separate subject; ii) as a mandatory theme across the curriculum, sometimes referred to as curricular infusion; iii) as part of extracurricular activities; or iv) a mix of two or all the above (Sultana, 2012). In this study we will focus on the inclusion of content and activities aiming to promote career development as part of an elective curriculum subject. This poses challenges related to curriculum overload but facilitates a clear focus on career development and having a specialised teacher or mentor in charge of that subject. In an evaluation-oriented system, having an assessment and evaluation associated with the subject may also motivate students (Sultana, 2012). This notion is reinforced by the work of Vaughan (2014), who stresses the pivotal role of evaluation as a learning driver in HE, specifically in blended courses. Being subjected to evaluation may, therefore, have motivational impacts, further mitigating the tendency for dropout observed in distance education. In this context, a question that lacks more empirical research is to what extent a career intervention that is integrated into the curriculum as mandatory and that has tangible benefits (grades) may be as effective as a career intervention that depends on participants' voluntary enrolment, considering career outcomes and completion.

Motivation and online career interventions

Online learning can present motivational challenges due to perceived isolation, misconceptions about the learning process, and technological difficulties, all of which can hinder engagement and academic success (Min & Yu, 2023; Zavyalova, 2020). Learners’ motivation in online programs, therefore, seems to require further study as it is sometimes presented as increased by blended learning strategies (Vaughan, 2014) and other times as posing difficulties in those settings (Zavyalova, 2020). In this context, Self-Determination Theory (SDT) represents one of the most cited theories, applied in various domains and settings (Chen & Jang, 2010; Deci & Ryan, 2000). Self-determination refers to one’s ability to make choices and manage one’s life path, impacting motivation. According to the SDT, when people perceive that their actions may contribute to an outcome, they are more likely to feel intrinsically motivated and engaged to act. People are motivated to grow and change when their basic psychological needs for competence, relatedness, and autonomy are supported. Several studies have supported the validity of the SDT in traditional learning settings, evidencing that an autonomy-supportive learning environment, favouring individuals’ basic psychological needs, promotes positive learning outcomes (Reeve, 2002).

However, in online learning environments, research about SDT is still incipient, and there is still insufficiently consolidated knowledge about the relevance of motivation, particularly of the perception of autonomy, competence, and relatedness, to learning outcomes. A study conducted by Rowland (2016) analysed the association between the SDT components, measured by the Basic Psychological Needs Scale (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Gagné, 2003), in the context of an online teaching certification program not related to career education. Significant correlations were found between competence and self-perceived overall learning after the program. The SDT components have also been explored in relation to student engagement, although the overall results suggest that the relationships seem to vary across different contexts and education levels (Shah et al., 2021). Considering online experience during the COVID-19 pandemic, research suggests positive and significant relationships between the SDT variables and students' engagement in online learning (Chiu, 2022; Shah et al., 2021). The relation between the SDT and learning outcomes has also been explored, although with contradictory results. Chen and Jang (2010) did not find an association between self-determined motivation and learning outcomes in online courses, while findings from Hsu et al. (2019) indicated that the satisfaction of basic psychological needs contributes to increased achievement in online learning.

The present study

A previously developed online distance career intervention program offered as an extracurricular activity was adapted to be offered as part of an elective curriculum subject, in a blended learning environment. The original program attracted only some of the HE institution students (mostly students in the final years of their academic degrees) and faced some difficulties retaining participants until the end of the intervention. The subject included weekly face-to-face classes and online, asynchronous activities. While the subject was elective, the intervention program was included as a mandatory activity required for its successful completion.

This program adaptation was intended to reach a different public, as it is verified that students volunteering for extracurricular programs often lead to a selection bias. On the other hand, the adaptation to a blended program and integration into the curriculum, including an element of evaluation, was devised to help overcome participant dropout and non-completion of activities. Taking that context, the following objectives of the present research were designed: a) to evaluate the effect of an intervention program on career resources in blended and distance modalities –including consideration of the extent to which a program that is not of voluntary attendance can be effective in promoting participants’ career resources; b) to explore the relationship between the changes on career resources and motivational variables.

This study is expected to contribute to developing knowledge regarding the effectiveness of online career interventions, comparing an online distance extracurricular environment with a blended environment integrated into the curriculum. To our knowledge, and despite the growing number of online career interventions, there are still no studies focusing on this issue. This study is also expected to add knowledge about the relationship between motivational variables, particularly the SDT components, and career intervention outcomes.

Method

Results

Discussion

This study aimed to contribute to the literature and practice by evaluating the effectiveness of an intervention program on career resources in a blended modality, integrated into the curriculum and a distance extracurricular modality, and exploring the relationship between the changes obtained after the program and motivational variables.

The results confirmed that participants of the career intervention in both modalities reported significant gains in career resources in three of the four dimensions evaluated. Therefore, both program modalities appear to be effective, adding to literature and research on career interventions (e.g. Kettunen & Sampson, 2019; Soares et al., 2022) and, particularly, supporting the effectiveness of distance career interventions (Carvalho et al., 2023; van der Horst et al., 2021).

Differences between the DIG and the BIG were found. BIG participants presented gains in all dimensions except for motivation, while DIG participants had gains in all dimensions except for environment. Additionally, the gains in the knowledge and skills dimension were greater for the participants in the DIG. Previous literature suggests that blended formats allow greater access to instructional resources and course elements that foster interactions among learners (Garrison & Kanuka, 2004; Means et al., 2013), which might lead to the expectation that the BIG would have better results. However, considering that the enrolment in the BIG was not completely deliberate, these additional resources might represent important elements to keep students engaged and contribute to some attenuation of the advantages of this modality.

Considering that career interventions in HE have evidenced consistent positive effects for students in the short and long terms (Reardon et al., 2024) and that completion rates are significantly higher for the BIG compared to the DIG (84.4% vs. 57.8%, in this study), blended intervention might represent a significant opportunity to reach and retain different publics to successful completion of the program, particularly more disadvantaged groups (Hunt et al., 2021). The findings align with previous literature emphasising the accessibility and completion advantages of blended learning formats (Gerbic, 2011; Hong Minh et al., 2023; Means et al., 2013), which could lead to increased career-related outcomes for diverse student populations.

Concerning the relationship between motivation and gains in career resources, the predictive power of the motivational variables is low and with greater relevance for the competence dimension in the BIG. A significant association between this SDT dimension and self-perceived overall learning was found in the study of Rowland (2016). However, previous research regarding the relationship between self-determined motivation in distance environments and results is ambiguous and seems to vary according to the outcomes considered and contexts. Chen and Jang (2010) found no significant association between self-determination and learning outcomes, while Hsu et al. (2019) found a significant relationship between self-determined motivation, achievement, and learning outcomes. Shah et al. (2021) suggest that the three basic needs of the SDT may mediate the relationship between online learning climate and student engagement. Therefore, although motivational factors do not seem to be determinant for improving career resources in this study, thus aligning with the previous findings of Chen and Jang (2010), it is possible that if different outcomes were considered, such as participants' engagement, different results might be obtained. Moreover, participants of the BIG scored higher in the dimension of relatedness, which is evidence that blended interventions can represent an advantage in terms of motivation, which aligns with previous research on blended learning (Chakawodza et al., 2024; Nass et al., 2023), particularly when the sense of belonging and connection is anticipated to be relevant (Reeve, 2002). However, relatedness does not appear to be central in the context of this intervention and regarding its specific purpose of promoting career resources. In turn, DIG participants perceived higher autonomy levels. This result is not surprising, considering that the decision to enrol in the program was completely self-determined in the case of the DIG. Moreover, BIG students were subject to evaluation, which may have, at least partially, conditioned their perception of autonomy (Deci & Ryan, 2000), as well as their motivation and persistence (Vaughan, 2014). The findings suggest that while autonomy may be more prominent in voluntary settings, the blended format could enhance other key motivational components like relatedness (Hsu et al., 2019; Ryan, 1982).

Regarding practical implications, this study’s findings offer evidence that both blended and distance modalities can be effective, although with distinct advantages that might be taken into account according to the singularities of each context. Given the observed higher completion rates in the blended intervention, offered by curricular infusion, compared to the distance intervention, dependent on voluntary enrolment, interventions targeting vulnerable or less-motivated groups may benefit more from a more structured approach. Moreover, although the study found that motivational variables had limited predictive power regarding career resource gains, SDT components impacted participants differently across modalities. Blended interventions, developed through curricular infusion, could enhance competence, for example, through feedback to participants regarding practical activities of the interventions. Distance interventions could emphasize the perception of the value/usefulness of interventions, for example, through the adaptation of activities to directly relate to the participants' professional objectives. This study contributes to elucidating possible advantages and disadvantages inherent to some of the career intervention modalities proposed by Sultana (2012) while emphasizing that there is no “one-size-fits-all” model, as previously argued (Monteiro & Almeida, 2021b).

This study is not without its limitations. The two samples enrolled in the BIG and the DIG were not entirely in the same conditions, as the decision to enrol in the program was totally self-determined for the participants in the DIG but not for those in the BIG. Although these conditions of the study were relevant and necessary to practice, as they may inform decisions about the benefits of compulsory activities in a blended modality, further research aiming exclusively to understand the blended and distance modalities of intervention could consider samples in equivalent conditions. Additionally, future studies should consider incorporating motivation variables prior to the intervention in order to explore the relationship between self-determination factors and student program completion (Hernández-Arvizu et al., 2023; Reeve, 2002). Since the effectiveness of these career intervention programs may differ according to the scientific areas and the students' training stage, future research may address the impact of these variables.

To conclude, despite some divergence between blended and distance modalities of career interventions, this study shows that career intervention can be effective in both, contributing to the literature comparing the effectiveness of different online education modalities (Chakawodza et al., 2024; Gerbic, 2011; Hong Minh et al., 2023; Nass et al., 2023). Particularly, it adds to the literature on blended career intervention, which has scarcely been explored (Kettunen & Sampson, 2019), informing practice about the potential and limitations of different actions. Moreover, the results show that relatedness is higher in the blended format, while participants in the distance format reported higher levels of autonomy. However, in this study, motivation variables do not present a large predictive power for gains in career resources, contributing to understanding the role of self-determined motivation in different settings and modalities of interventions (Ryan & Deci, 2017; Shah et al., 2021).