Barriers and policy solutions for electric vehicle adoption in Spain: a multidimensional analysis
Article Sidebar
Main Article Content
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.17979/ejge.2025.14.1.11299Abstract
In Spain, the transport sector is one of the largest contributors to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, primarily due to the widespread use of fossil fuels. Electric vehicles (EVs) are a key component in transitioning towards sustainable mobility and transport decarbonization. The article presents novel insights into the interplay between economic, technical, regulatory, and social factors affecting EV uptake in Spain, distinguishing itself from previous studies, using a multidimensional approach. It not only identifies the main challenges but also proposes actionable solutions based on successful international case studies. These include enhancing financial incentives, expanding nationwide charging networks, ensuring consistent regulatory frameworks and promoting public awareness campaigns to dispel misconceptions about EVs, among others. By integrating these aspects, the research contributes significantly to the discourse on sustainable transport in Spain, aiming to provide a roadmap for policymakers and stakeholders in achieving national climate targets.
Keywords:
Article Details
References
Adnan, N., Nordin, S. M., Rahman, I., Vasant, P., & Noor, M. A. (2017). An integrative approach to study on consumer behavior towards plug-in hybrid electric vehicles revolution: Consumer behavior towards plug-in hybrid electric vehicles. En R. Ianole (Ed.), Applied behavioral economics research and trends (pp. 183–213). Hershey, PA: IGI Global. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-5225-1826-6.ch010
Adnan, N., Nordin, S. M., Rahman, I., Vasant, P. M., & Noor, M. A. (2016). A comprehensive review on theoretical framework‐based electric vehicle consumer adoption research. International Journal of Energy Research, 41(3), 317–335. https://doi.org/10.1002/er.3640
Adu-Gyamfi, G., Song, H., Nketiah, E., Obuobi, B., & Djanie, A. K. (2024). Remedying driving range and refueling challenges in electric mobility: Consumer adoption of battery-swappable electric vehicles. Technology in Society, 78, Article 102661. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2024.102661
AEDIVE. (2024, enero 2). Las matriculaciones de vehículos electrificados cierran 2023 con una subida de más del 38%, rozando las 140.000 unidades. https://aedive.es/matriculaciones-vehiculos-electrificados-cierran-2023-subida-de-mas-del-38-rozando-140-000-unidades/
Ajanovic, A., & Haas, R. (2019). Economic and environmental prospects for battery electric‐ and fuel cell vehicles: A review. Fuel Cells, 19(5), 515–529. https://doi.org/10.1002/fuce.201800171
Albatayneh, A., Assaf, M. N., Alterman, D., & Jaradat, M. (2020). Comparison of the overall energy efficiency for internal combustion engine vehicles and electric vehicles. Environmental and Climate Technologies, 24(1), 669–680. https://doi.org/10.2478/rtuect-2020-0041
Alphabet. (2024). Radiografía de los hábitos de movilidad de los españoles. https://www.alphabet.com/es-es/foro-de-movilidad-2024
Anastasiadis, A. G., Kondylis, G. P., Polyzakis, A., & Vokas, G. (2019). Effects of increased electric vehicles into a distribution network. Energy Procedia, 157, 586–593. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2018.11.223
Bastida-Molina, P., Ribó-Pérez, D., Gómez-Navarro, T., & Hurtado-Pérez, E. (2022). What is the problem? The obstacles to the electrification of urban mobility in Mediterranean cities: Case study of Valencia, Spain. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 166, Article 112649. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2022.112649
Bastida-Molina, P., Hurtado-Pérez, E., Peñalvo-López, E., & Moros-Gómez, M. C. (2020). Assessing transport emissions reduction while increasing electric vehicles and renewable generation levels. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 88, Article 102560. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2020.102560
Berckmans, G., Messagie, M., Smekens, J., Omar, N., Vanhaverbeke, L., & Van Mierlo, J. (2017). Cost projection of state of the art lithium-ion batteries for electric vehicles up to 2030. Energies, 10, Article 1314. https://doi.org/10.3390/en10091314
BNP Paribas. (2024, marzo 21). Estudio Motor 2024. Observatorio Cetelem. https://elobservatoriocetelem.es/motor/estudio-motor-2024/
Canepa, K., Hardman, S., & Tal, G. (2019). An early look at plug-in electric vehicle adoption in disadvantaged communities in California. Transport Policy, 78, 19–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2019.03.009
Carley, S., Krause, R. M., Lane, B. W., & Graham, J. D. (2013). Intent to purchase a plug-in electric vehicle: A survey of early impressions in large US cities. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 18, 39–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2012.09.007
Chakraborty, D., Bunch, D. S., Brownstone, D., Xu, B., & Tal, G. (2022). Plug-in electric vehicle diffusion in California: Role of exposure to new technology at home and work. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 156, 133–151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2021.12.005
Chernyshev, A. D., Lisovskaya, T. A., & Lisovskiy, R. A. (2017). Comparative analysis of different electrical motor types as a traction drive part in electrical transmission. En 2017 International Conference on Industrial Engineering, Applications and Manufacturing (ICIEAM) (pp. 1–5). IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICIEAM.2017.8076311
Coffman, M., Bernstein, P., & Wee, S. (2017). Electric vehicles revisited: A review of factors that affect adoption. Transport Reviews, 37(1), 79–93. https://doi.org/10.1080/01441647.2016.1217282
Dokuzoğlu, S., & Güzel, A. E. (2024). Democracy, governance, and environmental policy effectiveness: A cross-country analysis with Sustainable Governance Indicators. European Journal of Government and Economics, 13(1), 103–119. https://doi.org/10.17979/ejge.2024.13.1.9902
European Alternative Fuels Observatory. (2024). Infrastructure. https://alternative-fuels-observatory.ec.europa.eu/transport-mode/road/spain/infrastructure
European Automobile Manufacturers’ Association. (2024, febrero 6). New car registrations: +13.9% in 2023; battery electric 14.6% market share. https://www.acea.auto/pc-registrations/new-car-registrations-13-9-in-2023-battery-electric-14-6-market-share
European Commission Mobility and Transport. (2024). Electric vehicles. https://transport.ec.europa.eu/transport-themes/clean-transport/clean-and-energy-efficient-vehicles/green-propulsion-transport/electric-vehicles_en
European Court of Auditors. (2020). Red básica de carreteras de la UE: Se han reducido los tiempos de desplazamiento, pero todavía no es plenamente funcional. https://www.eca.europa.eu/Lists/ECADocuments/SR20_09/SR_Road_network_ES.pdf
European Environment Agency. (2024, abril 15). EEA greenhouse gases-data viewer. https://www.eea.europa.eu/en/analysis/maps-and-charts/greenhouse-gases-viewer-data-viewers
European Parliament. (2023, marzo 23). Emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero por país y sector. https://www.europarl.europa.eu/pdfs/news/expert/2018/3/story/20180301STO98928/20180301STO98928_es.pdf
Eurostat. (2024). Demography of Europe – 2024 edition. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/interactive-publications/demography-2024
Eurostat. (2024). Regions in Europe – 2024 edition. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/interactive-publications/regions-2024#gross-domestic-product
Eurostat. (2024). Europe database. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/data/database
Faria, M. V., Baptista, P. C., & Farias, T. L. (2014). Electric vehicle parking in European and American context: Economic, energy and environmental analysis. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 64, 110–121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2014.03.011
Feng, J., Guo, P., & Xu, G. (2024). Barriers to electric vehicle battery recycling in a circular economy: An interpretive structural modeling. Journal of Cleaner Production, 469, Article 143224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2024.143224
Fernández, R. A. (2021). Stochastic analysis of future scenarios for battery electric vehicle deployment and the upgrade of the electricity generation system in Spain. Journal of Cleaner Production, 316, Article 128101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.128101
GANVAM Asociación Nacional de Vendedores de Vehículos. (2024, julio 5). Las matriculaciones de vehículos electrificados cierran 2023 con una subida de más del 38%, rozando las 140.000 unidades. https://ganvam.es/las-matriculaciones-de-vehiculos-electrificados-cierran-2023-con-una-subida-de-mas-del-38-rozando-las-140-000-unidades/
Geotab. (2024). How long do electric car batteries last? What 10,000 electric vehicles tell us about EV battery life. https://www.geotab.com/blog/ev-battery-health/
Gilleran, M., Bonnema, E., Woods, J., Mishra, P., Doebber, I., Hunter, C., Mitchell, M., & Mann, M. (2021). Impact of electric vehicle charging on the power demand of retail buildings. Advances in Applied Energy, 4, Article 100062. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adapen.2021.100062
González, P. F., Presno, M. J., & Landajo, M. (2024). Tracking the change in Spanish greenhouse gas emissions through an LMDI decomposition model: A global and sectoral approach. Journal of Environmental Sciences, 139, 114–122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jes.2022.08.027
Gruber, P. W., Medina, P. A., Keoleian, G. A., Kesler, S. E., Everson, M. P., & Wallington, T. J. (2011). Global lithium availability: A constraint for electric vehicles? Journal of Industrial Ecology, 15(5), 760–775. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-9290.2011.00359.x
Haddadian, G., Khodayar, M., & Shahidehpour, M. (2015). Accelerating the global adoption of electric vehicles: Barriers and drivers. The Electricity Journal, 28(10), 53–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tej.2015.11.011
Haram, M. H. S. M., Lee, J. W., Ramasamy, G., Ngu, E. E., Thiagarajah, S. P., & Lee, Y. H. (2021). Feasibility of utilising second life EV batteries: Applications, lifespan, economics, environmental impact, assessment, and challenges. Alexandria Engineering Journal, 60(5), 4517–4536. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aej.2021.03.021
Hardman, S., Chandan, A., Tal, G., & Turrentine, T. S. (2017). The effectiveness of financial purchase incentives for battery electric vehicles – A review of the evidence. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 80, 1100–1111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.05.255
Higueras-Castillo, E., Molinillo, S., Coca-Stefaniak, J. A., & Liébana-Cabanillas, F. (2020). Potential early adopters of hybrid and electric vehicles in Spain—Towards a customer profile. Sustainability, 12(11), Article 4345. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12114345
Instituto Geográfico Nacional. (2024). Geoportal oficial del Instituto Geográfico Nacional de España. https://www.ign.es/web/ane-datos-geograficos/-/datos-geograficos/datosPoblacion?tipoBusqueda=CCAA
Instituto Nacional de Estadística. (2024). Cuentas económicas. Contabilidad regional de España. https://www.ine.es/dyngs/INEbase/es/operacion.htm?c=Estadistica_C&cid=1254736167628&menu=ultiDatos&idp=1254735576581
International Council on Clean Transportation. (2022). A global comparison of the life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions of combustion engine and electric passenger cars. https://theicct.org/publication/a-global-comparison-of-the-life-cycle-greenhouse-gas-emissions-of-combustion-engine-and-electric-passenger-cars/
International Energy Agency. (2024). Global EV Outlook 2024. https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2024
International Energy Agency. (2023). Global EV Outlook 2023. https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2023
International Energy Agency. (2009). Energy technology transitions for industry: Strategies for the next industrial revolution. OECD Publishing.
Instituto para la Diversificación y Ahorro de la Energía. (2024). Programa MOVES III. Movilidad eficiente y sostenible. https://www.idae.es/ayudas-y-financiacion/para-movilidad-y-vehiculos/programa-moves-iii
International Organization of Motor Vehicle Manufacturers. (2024). World motor vehicle production by country/region and type. https://www.oica.net/wp-content/uploads/By-country-region-2023.pdf
Jenn, A., Springel, K., & Gopal, A. R. (2018). Effectiveness of electric vehicle incentives in the United States. Energy Policy, 119, 349–356. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2018.04.065
Izquierdo-Monge, O., Bonilla, A. Z. V., Lafuente-Cacho, M., Peña-Carro, P., & Hernández-Jiménez, Á. (2024). Heuristic method for electric vehicle charging in a Spanish microgrid: Leveraging renewable energy surplus. Journal of Power Sources, 629, Article 235945. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2024.235945
Jeong, J. W., Lee, D. I., Woo, S., Lim, Y., & Lee, K. (2024). Analysis of energy consumption efficiency and emissions according to urban driving of hybrid electric vehicles in Korea. Applied Energy, 371, Article 123686. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2024.123686
Kamran, M. (2022). Electric vehicles and smart grids. In Fundamentals of Smart Grid Systems (pp. 431-460). London: Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-323-99560-3.00002-8
Knobloch, F., Hanssen, S., Lam, A., Pollitt, H., Salas, P., Chewpreecha, U., Huijbregts, M. A. J., & Mercure, J. F. (2020). Net emission reductions from electric cars and heat pumps in 59 world regions over time. Nature Sustainability, 3, 437–447. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-020-0488-7
Krishna, G. (2021). Understanding and identifying barriers to electric vehicle adoption through thematic analysis. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives, 10, Article 100364. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trip.2021.100364
Longo, M., Foiadelli, F., & Yaïci, W. (2019). Electric vehicles integrated with renewable energy sources for sustainable mobility. In L. Romeral Martínez & M. Delgado Prieto (Eds.), New Trends in Electrical Vehicle Powertrains (pp. 203-223). London: IntechOpen. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.76788
Maia, F., Leitão, S., & Marques, M. C. (2024). Energy transition in Portugal: The harnessing of solar photovoltaics in electric mobility and its impact on the carbon footprint. Journal of Cleaner Production, 477, article 143834. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2024.143834
Mauritzen, J. (2024). Adoption of Chinese cars and the shift to electric vehicles: Early evidence from Norway. Transport Policy, 158, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2024.09.012
Ministerio de Industria, Energía y Turismo. (2012). Resolución de 28 de septiembre de 2012, de la Secretaría de Estado de Energía, por la que se publica la de 24 de septiembre de 2012, del Consejo de Administración del Instituto para la Diversificación y Ahorro de la Energía, por la que se establecen las bases reguladoras para la convocatoria de ayudas del Programa de Incentivos al Vehículo Eficiente. Boletín Oficial del Estado, núm. 235, 29-09-2012. https://www.boe.es/buscar/doc.php?id=BOE-A-2012-12216
Ministerio de Industria, Energía y Turismo. (2009). Resolución de 26 de junio de 2009, del Instituto para la Diversificación y Ahorro de la Energía, por la que se establecen las bases reguladoras para la convocatoria única del Programa de ayudas del IDAE para la adquisición y uso de vehículos eléctricos, en el marco del Proyecto piloto de movilidad eléctrica, dentro del Plan de activación del ahorro y la eficiencia energética 2008-2011 y del Plan de acción 2008-2012 de la Estrategia de ahorro y eficiencia energética en España 2004-2012. Boletín Oficial del Estado, núm. 160, 03-07-2009. https://www.boe.es/diario_boe/txt.php?id=BOE-A-2009-11022
Ministerio de Transportes y Movilidad Sostenible. (2024). Observatorio del transporte y la logística en España. https://otle.transportes.gob.es/movilidad
Ministerio de Transportes y Movilidad Sostenible. (2023). Mitma adjudica 500 millones de euros a 120 municipios para descarbonizar sus núcleos urbanos y fomentar la movilidad sostenible. Estrategia de Movilidad Segura, Sostenible y Conectada 2030. https://esmovilidad.transportes.gob.es/noticias/mitma-adjudica-500-millones-de-euros-120-municipios-para-descarbonizar-sus-nucleos-urbanos
Ministerio para la Transición Ecológica y el Reto Demográfico. (2023a). Nota informativa sobre el avance de las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero correspondientes al año 2022. https://www.miteco.gob.es/content/dam/miteco/es/calidad-y-evaluacion-ambiental/temas/sistema-espanol-de-inventario-sei-/avance_GEI_2022.pdf
Ministerio para la Transición Ecológica y el Reto Demográfico. (2023b). Informe de Inventario Nacional de Emisiones de Gases de Efecto Invernadero. https://www.miteco.gob.es/content/dam/miteco/es/calidad-y-evaluacion-ambiental/temas/sistema-espanol-de-inventario-sei-/es_nir_edicion2023_tcm30-560374.pdf
Ministerio para la Transición Ecológica y el Reto Demográfico. (2023c). Real Decreto 406/2023, de 29 de mayo, por el que se modifican el Real Decreto 266/2021, de 13 de abril [...] y el Real Decreto 263/2019, de 12 de abril, por el que se regula el Programa de ayudas para actuaciones de eficiencia energética en PYME y gran empresa del sector industrial. Boletín Oficial del Estado, núm. 129, 31-05-2023. https://www.boe.es/diario_boe/txt.php?id=BOE-A-2023-12786
Ministerio para la Transición Ecológica y el Reto Demográfico. (2021). Real Decreto 266/2021, de 13 de abril, por el que se aprueba la concesión directa de ayudas a las comunidades autónomas y a las ciudades de Ceuta y Melilla para la ejecución de programas de incentivos ligados a la movilidad eléctrica (MOVES III) en el marco del Plan de Recuperación, Transformación y Resiliencia Europeo. Boletín Oficial del Estado, núm. 89, 14-04-2021. https://www.boe.es/buscar/doc.php?id=BOE-A-2021-5869
Ministerio para la Transición Ecológica y el Reto Demográfico. (2020, enero 20). Plan Nacional Integrado de Energía y Clima 2021–2030. https://www.miteco.gob.es/content/dam/miteco/images/es/pnieccompleto_tcm30-508410.pdf
Moro, A., & Lonza, L. (2018). Electricity carbon intensity in European Member States: Impacts on GHG emissions of electric vehicles. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 64, 5–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2017.07.012
Muñoz Delgado, B., & Rubio Vargas, M. (2015). La dependencia energética exterior de España 1900–2010. En J. M. Beneyto & J. C. Pereira (Eds.), Historia de la política exterior española en los siglos XX y XXI. Vol. I (pp. 461–490). Madrid: CEU Ediciones.
Niu, J., Li, X., Tian, Z., & Yang, H. (2024). Uncertainty analysis of the electric vehicle potential for a household to enhance robustness in decision on the EV/V2H technologies. Applied Energy, 365, Article 123294. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2024.123294
Pehlken, A., Albach, S., & Vogt, T. (2017). Is there a resource constraint related to lithium ion batteries in cars? The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 22(1), 40–53. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-015-0925-4
Peugeot. (2024, diciembre). https://www.peugeot.es/elige-un-coche/gama-peugeot.html
Raluy, R. G., Guillén-Lambea, S., Serra, L. M., Guadalfajara, M., & Lozano, M. A. (2021). Environmental assessment of central solar heating plants with seasonal storage located in Spain. Journal of Cleaner Production, 314, Article 128078. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.128078
Red Eléctrica Española. (2018). Vehículo eléctrico: Cuestiones a plantear. https://www.ree.es/sites/default/files/07_SALA_PRENSA/20190114_PRESENTACION_VE.pdf
Renault. (2024, diciembre). https://www.renault.es/configurador.html
Rietmann, N., & Lieven, T. (2019). A comparison of policy measures promoting electric vehicles in 20 countries. In M. Finger & M. Audouin (Eds.), The Governance of Smart Transportation Systems (pp. 125-145). Cham, Switzerland: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-96526-0_7
Rosales-Asensio, E., Borge, D. B., Cabrera, P., & Sarmento, P. (2024). Effectiveness and efficiency of support schemes in promoting renewable energy sources in the Spanish electricity market. International Journal of Electrical Power & Energy Systems, 158, Article 109926. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijepes.2024.109926
Ross Morrow, W., Gallagher, K. S., Collantes, G., & Lee, H. (2010). Analysis of policies to reduce oil consumption and greenhouse-gas emissions from the US transportation sector. Energy Policy, 38(3), 1305–1320. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2009.11.006
Sahiti, F. (2023). Unleashing entrepreneurial potential in transition economies: A comparative analysis of the impact of macro and micro policies. European Journal of Government and Economics, 12(2), 119–138. https://doi.org/10.17979/ejge.2023.12.2.9600
Singh, V., Singh, V., & Vaibhav, S. (2020). A review and simple meta-analysis of factors influencing adoption of electric vehicles. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 86, Article 102436. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2020.102436
Sousa, C., & Costa, E. (2022). Types of policies for the joint diffusion of electric vehicles with renewable energies and their use worldwide. Energies, 15(20), Article 7585. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15207585
Statista. (2024, mayo 30). Dependencia energética exterior en España 2006–2022. https://es.statista.com/estadisticas/493962/dependencia-de-las-importaciones-de-energia-de-espana/
Usmani, O., & Rösler, H. (2015). Policy recommendations and stakeholder actions towards effective integration of EVs in the EU. https://resolver.tno.nl/uuid:e2ac5ae6-885a-4147-86c9-c92a733d3fe1
Weil, M., & Ziemann, S. (2014). Recycling of traction batteries as a challenge and chance for future lithium availability. En G. Pistoia (Ed.), Lithium-Ion Batteries: Advances and Applications (pp. 509–528). Amsterdam: Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-59513-3.00022-4
Wicki, M., Brückmann, G., Quoss, F., & Bernauer, T. (2023). What do we really know about the acceptance of battery electric vehicles? – Turns out, not much. Transport Reviews, 43(1), 62–87. https://doi.org/10.1080/01441647.2021.2023693
Will, C., Zimmermann, F., Ensslen, A., Fraunholz, C., Jochem, P., & Keles, D. (2024). Can electric vehicle charging be carbon neutral? Uniting smart charging and renewables. Applied Energy, 371, Article 123549. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2024.123549
Wood, J., & Jain, A. (2020). Raceways, rebates, and retrofits: An exploration of several American cities’ policies to facilitate electric vehicle purchase and usage. International Journal of Urban Sustainable Development, 13(2), 148–158. https://doi.org/10.1080/19463138.2020.1843467
Yang, M., & Lin, B. (2024). The development of consumer preferences for electric vehicle charging infrastructure in China: Evidence from a questionnaire survey with a four-year interval. Energy, 307, Article 132671. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2024.132671